Part I: Understanding Coffee
*This is the first part of my three-part treatise on coffee.
Understanding Preferences
Coffee can be defined based on sustainable practices (organic, fair trade, ethical), brand (Starbucks, Balzac’s, Tim Horton’s, Planet Bean, Vereda Central, etc.), origin (Li Maya, Yirgachefe, Sidamo, Peruvian Café Femenino etc.), roasting approach (dark or light), variety or cultivar (Geisha, Caturra, Bourbon), process (washed, anaerobic, aerobic) and scientifically (Arabica or Robusta). These different definitions notwithstanding, people’s coffee preferences are affected by available information, culture, and lifestyle. My exploration[1] also indicates that people drink coffee for sophistication and a signal of a better quality of life though most of the time its unconscious – thus the nudge to visit a specialty café to enjoy the ambiance or buy a single origin coffee. Another classification of coffee is the way they appear on the menu of cafes such as Americano (now Canadiano in Canada), café latte, cappuccino, espresso, flat white, cortado, macchiato, mocha, among others. These beverages are mostly about the combination of milk and espresso and whether the milk is steamed or not.
Another attribute of coffee presentation in specialty café especially those in the fourth wave coffee space is the ‘Pour over'. ‘Pour over’ is a process of coffee filtration of single origin that is clean and easy to drink. ‘Pour over’ involves making coffee in a meticulous way with extractions that produces a more flavourful drink with pronounced notes and desirable aromas. There is also a nexus between single origin coffee and Geographical Indications (GI).
The consumption of coffee differs among people. Some people don’t drink coffee at all while some drink a little or occasionally, and there are frequent consumers. The propensity to consume is higher in developed countries except in countries where it is cultural like Ethiopia.
Understanding coffee will be incomplete without the story about its development. There are different myths about the creation of coffee including the Kaldi’s story that posits that the coffee originated from Ethiopia. It is also generally accepted by coffee scholars and enthusiasts that coffee truly originated from present day Ethiopia. The plant was moved from Ethiopia to Mocha in Yemen with the help of traders. It was popularized by the Sufis who made the consumption part of their religious rituals. The Turks conquered the Arabs, and coffee became part of the culture. There was a significant spread of coffee during the Ottoman Empire. Smuggling also occurred and that was how the produce entered India.
Coffee was so precious and sought after that the Dutch started growing it in Amsterdam inside greenhouses and later in their colonies in place such as Java, Indonesia – because of the climate. They forced the cultivation of coffee on the natives. The coffees, Mocha (Yemen) and Java (Indonesia), are based on the names of cities that contributed to the dissemination of coffee. Coffee was modernized in Vienna (Austria) but was perfected in Italy. The first café in Venice was in 1720. The development of coffee in France was with the help of the Italians. They were great craftsmen with the addition of authenticity and aesthetic value to the consumption of coffee.
The popularity of coffee may also have stemmed from a replacement. It allows active discussion while avoiding the alcoholic danger of drunkenness. England received coffee from Turkey in the mid 17th century although tea overtook the consumption by the end of the 17th century. Even though the consumption of coffee declined in England in the entire Europe the consumption of coffee multiplied by 20 times in century from 1700 – 1800. To increase production to match the demand, countries started developing coffee plantations in colonies and increased the use of slaves in its production, mostly from Africa. For example, the French developed plantations in Martinique and San Domingo (now Haiti) until the revolt in Haiti in 1791 that led to destruction of sugar and coffee plantations.
Brazil also developed its production of coffee using slaves. Whether in Latin America, Central or North America the growth of coffee was strengthened by slaves, indentured servants including native Indians as witnessed in Guatemala.
The new waves of coffee, starting from the third wave, expects the production and marketing of coffee to be fairly traded, organic, and traceable. So, fair-trade by the rainforest alliance, organic certification, and single origin are important attributes for which some consumers are willing to pay a premium. Furthermore, cafés are expected to be meticulous and processes more scientific.
Coffee as a Cultural Ritual
As part of my exploration of the coffee landscape, I participated in more than 10 coffee rituals at events organized by Ethiopian Canadians in different parts of Ontario from 2017 – 2025 accompanied by our research fellow who is Ethiopian-Eritrean. The coffee ceremony is an integral part of all their ceremonies. Coffee is prepared and served at mourning, festive periods, christenings, and all other get-togethers.
The food served is usually injera and different types of meat and vegetable stews. I also witnessed some eating their injera with raw meat (Tire Siga) or spiced raw meat (kitfo). The most important beverage is coffee served in the traditional way. The preparation starts with the roasting of the green coffee beans imported from Ethiopia (specifically from a particular region based on the ethnicity of the host). The smoke is perceived and allowed to diffuse around the room and the clothes of guests because it’s assumed that it brings blessings.
Along with the smoke from roasting coffee – this is done at home no matter where they are in the world, there is also the burning of incense. They travel with the paraphernalia as they move around the world. Waving of smoke towards the body by all present is recommended because Ethiopians believe that it brings good luck. Burning of incense (usually frankincense) is done throughout the ceremony as part of the ritual. After roasting, the coffee beans are ground and then brewed. The final stage is to brew the coffee[4] and serve it using a traditional cup like the cups used to serve espresso in specialty cafes. There are usually three rounds of serving: the first serving is abol, the second is tona, and the last and final serving is the blessing, baraka. My observation indicates that some people don’t consume the three rounds while some consume more.
Coffee Waves: Fourth Wave Plus (4thW+)
Coffee has attributes as a plant, food, beverage and culture. It has evolved over the years with different attributes. These attributes define the different coffee waves. The first wave coffee (20th century) was when we had commodity coffee. This was the advent of cheap and easily accessible coffee which led to a significant increase in the consumption of coffee. The second wave coffee (mid 1990s) was characterized by coffee shops, the development of brands and differentiation and competition in the coffee industry. During this period there was an increase in café visits. The third wave (late 2000s/early 2010s) was when coffee started climbing the sophistication rope. Coffee is now sympathetically roasted and “scientifically’ prepared. Preparation can be in different ways to express their complex flavours. The quality turn has made specialty café pricey.
Fourth wave is the present situation in some of the spaces in the coffee industry. It’s more scientific and both traceability and ethical production are very important. A five wave model was proposed by Giuli and Pascuss in 2014 by separating the first wave to pioneering and industrial. Based on my observation studying the coffee landscape over ten years I propose that there is a fourth wave plus (4thW+) which is inclusive futuristic, and sustainable. Under this wave coffee are custom made and there is emphasis on bespoke, ethics, direct contact with farmers, single origin, published information, excellent baristas service, and the rise of pour over.
A truly fourth wave should be bespoke production and consumption of coffee where consumers are catered to based on their preferences and in an atmosphere that complements cultures and lifestyle. The key ideas are authenticity, traceability and transparency. In other words, opacity and food authenticity are inversely related in the fourth wave coffee market. The fourth wave plus (4thW+) is well grounded, inclusive and antifragile. This coffee wave has incorporated coffee rituals from different cultures where coffee is a staple. Some align with the Ethiopian culture, others Turkish and some are a blend of coffee cultures. The most important attribute is that 4thW+ takes people on a journey closer to the original coffee cultures where it all started.
Brazil has been the largest producer of coffee since the 19th century till date. Consumption has also increased in this country because of the continuous evolvement of the different waves of coffee and the role of different Latin American countries in the promotion of single origin coffee. This results in the strengthening of geographical indications and the ethical promotion of intellectual property rights in the agricultural sector.
Café Visit: Reasons
Imagine a thought experiment where there are three types of people (A, B, and C) with respect to coffee consumption. Let’s assume that out of the three categories of people who visit cafes, two of them are coffee drinkers and the last group are non-drinkers. The two categories of consumers can be sub-divided to A {cultural background; ability to discern good coffee based on tacit knowledge acquired by growing up in coffee growing community; appreciate the aesthetic associated with drinking coffee; visiting a café gives a reminiscence of the past, nostalgic and socialization} and B {based on family lifestyle; ability to discern good coffee; neutral to aesthetic value; café is seen as space for work and socialization – interactions strengthen expensive and authentic coffee}. These categories are regulars if they visit the cafes often and regulars can be regarded as café explorers because they visit cafes to learn and hopefully discover new things. These explorers are café elites if they only visit specialty cafes where coffee is organic, ethical, single origin and meticulously selected, ground, brewed and cupped by the baristas.
The last category is C. This set of people do not drink coffee because of its bitterness and caffeine, but some do drink occasionally for social reasons, and this is how cafés present other values. A subset of this group can be regarded as café loafers – people who need a place to kill time while they enjoy the ambience of the space.
All groups – A, B, and C – visit specialty cafés because of the atmosphere, and the baristas attention to details with respect to customer service. Furthermore, it is seen as a place to de-stress, a workspace with unlimited internet access, and a place to discuss new business ideas and have regular meetings.
A café can also be regarded as a third place. The third-place idea was developed by Ray Oldenburg. It’s a place that is not home or place of work and the café is a typical example. The nexus between cafes and third place is obvious at Kanoo coffee where there is no internet connection and the use of laptops is disallowed on weekends. The owners indicated that they want customers to mingle instead of staring at the screens of their laptops or smart devices. Moreover, cafés give inspiration[5]. In fact, for the GenZ and millennial, it is a place to meet people. It increases their confidence level and sense of belonging.
To confirm that the attributes in the framework or thought experiment presented above is universal, I contacted people[6] in different parts of the world[7]. A brief discussion with consumers in different parts of the world indicates that people belong to different categories with respect to their consumption of coffee. There were non-drinkers such as Tunde because of the bitter taste or Christine because of caffeine, occasional drinker like Kageha who drinks latte at Mugg & Bean as a monthly treat or to calm her nerves when there is a challenge at work, and substantial drinkers such as Dazogbo and Sridharan who drink with cream or black (without cream or milk). In my small global sample, there were more tea than coffee drinkers. This is the reason why cafes include tea prominently in their menu. In fact, there is a 4thW+ café in Cambridge, Disko Coffee, owned by a GenZ who has a signature masala tea based on a recipe from his parents based on their Indian descent. This recipe has been tweaked to suit his taste and for ownership.
Scholars, both active and retired, are addicted to a lifestyle of coffee consumption. For example, a retired professor, author, researcher, political economist and avid coffee drinker has the following impression about coffee.
“Coffee is a daily beverage for me, and I like it black. The caffeine gives me inspiration and alertness”
In sum, there are different types of coffee consumers. People who don’t drink, those who drink a little (minimal), moderate consumers, and substantial consumers. Location of the consumer also affects the level of consumption. Based on our empirical evidence, observations and discussion with people globally, Growth of fourth wave coffee = f (T, A, Tr, LAI, E, Ar, R, S, Pr, L). Where T= Transparency (+); A = Authenticity (+); Tr = Traceability (+); LAI = Level of Asymmetric Information (-); E = Exclusive customer service (+); Ar = Artisanal (+); R = Risk sharing {café, farmer, consumer} (+); S = Space (not clear); Pr = Price (+); L = Location including proximity to consumers; and other variables not captured by this model. Distance is a very interesting concept; if a café or produce market offers good quality, people will still patronize the location though the closer the better. I have documented people who travel from Guelph to Toronto (108 km) or Guelph to Cambridge (25 km) just to get a cup of coffee from a preferred café.
A definition of Sustainability
Ethical production is an attribute of the present wave and future of coffee. It is important for coffee to be organically produced or at least ecologically friendly. An organic production guarantees the healthy nutrient balance of the soil and the balance of biodiversity with respect to fauna and flora. The use of synthetic herbicides, pesticides, and fertilizers may compromise the future use of soil and enhances the extinction of important microbes and the natural interaction of prey and predators. The use of cultivars that are well developed may strengthen the adaptation of the plant to the challenges of climatic change that is more profound in this 21st century.
Coffee production and consumption should be sustainability driven from farm to table. In other words, production should be ethical, organic, traceable, authentic and transparent. Crypto-labelling, a blockchain technology, can be used to promote these desirable attributes. The value and supply chain should be well documented, and monitoring and regulation should be appropriate, and the stakeholders should be involved in the strengthening of the value and supply chain. At cafes, baristas should pay attention to weighing, temperature and the brewing processes. This will ensure that drinks are of the best quality and flavour. In sum, sustainability is enhanced when all the stakeholders including farmers, producers, cooperatives, importers, employees along the value chain, and the consumers are all satisfied.
Conclusion:
Coffee can be defined using different parameters and consumption is a function of lifestyle and culture. The journey of coffee started in Ethiopia and is a beverage consumed globally. The Arabs helped with the movement of coffee around the world and the Italians perfected its consumption to the extent that they named an espresso adulterated with warm water as Americano (which Canadians now refer to as Canadiano because of trade policies of the United States towards Canada). With respect to culture, in the Turkish culture there is coffee cup reading where the sediments of the coffee ground in cups can be used for soothsaying and foretelling the future. There is even an app – Faladdin [8]– that can be used to implement the activity without consulting an expert.
There are different waves of coffee based on the production and consumption of the beverage. The coffee landscape became sophisticated after the third wave, and this is why the description of coffee in this essay is regarded as 4thW+ an inclusive and sustainable wave where all stakeholders are not worse off. We are not there yet but significant progress has been made.
Just like the story of coffee with different stops at different locations, ideas documented in this essay were developed on my commute between Guelph and Toronto. The conceptualization was done while drinking hojicha at Kanoo coffee and this part of the treatise was completed at Cavan Coffee. It is apparent that cafes are a place where the intelligentsia resides.
Though Nietzsche and Schopenhauer assert that it may be better not to be born, I want to take an optimistic view that only mortals write essays about the consumption of coffee and the café culture.
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Giuli, M., Pascucci, F., 2014. Il ritorno alla competitivita` dell’espresso italiano. Angeli, Milan. Grinspan, J., July 9, 2014. How Coffee Fueled the Civil War. New York Times. Available from: http://opinionator.blogs.nytimes.com/2014/07/09/how-coffee-fueled-the-civil-war/.
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Pendergrast M. 1999. Uncommon Grounds: The History of Coffee and How It Transformed Our World. New York: Basic Books.
Teles, C. R Arcanjo, and J.H. Behrens. 2020. “The Waves of Coffee and the Emergence of the new Brazilian Consumer.” In Coffee Consumption and Industry Strategies in Brazil, edited by Eduardo Eugenio Spers, 257–274. Elsevier.
Special thanks to Rufus Cavan, the chief roaster at Cavan Coffee and the Intellectnomics Research Group (IRG) coffee specialist – Wondimu Gashaw and fellow – Kajumba Kaahwa. Deserving special commendation is Emeritus Prof. Glen Filson for his comments on earlier drafts of this essay and the facilitation of our weekly meetings where we discuss different issues including gastronomy. I also thank El-Patron (Lennin Ruano-Ruiz), Erika Baker, Robbie McGill and Mackenzie Foote of Balzac’s Coffee Roasters, The Cavan brothers of Cavan Coffee, the baristas at Planet Bean downtown, and Kanoo Coffee (Amanda, Steve and the Baristas).
[1] Ethnographic study
[2] Melitta.“HistoryofCoffee.”MelittaUSA.(n.d.).https://www.melitta.com/en/History-of-Coffee-629.html.1
[3] Please see Irene Angelico (2005) Black Coffee – The Irresistible Bean, La fete Productions (Coffee) Inc. TVO/PBS;
Pendergrast Mark (1999), Uncommon Grounds: The History of Coffee and How It Transformed Our World. New York: Basic Books.
[4] Usually thick and dark.
[5] A place to read books or for their solitude time
[6] More than 30 people.
[7] Living in the American bubble can be deceptive.
[8] This app has more than 25 million downloads on all platforms as of 2025.
Thanks for this wonderful overview of the history of coffee and its terrific detail regarding coffee's cultural importance. As a coffee lover married to an Italian Canadian partial to cappuccino, I thought I knew a lot about coffee. I can hardly wait to try 'pour over' and some of the other exotic coffees to discuss.
The post does not just make me ponder the complexity of coffee itself, but also the cultural significance behind it.The journey of coffee from Ethiopia to Yemen and then across Europe is not just a story of cultural exchange, but also of conquest and a power dynamic. Understanding the idea of third wave coffee reminds me that as consumers, we have a responsibility to support more ethical and equitable practices.
Thank you, Professor, for inspiring me to look beyond the surface :)